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tive processes. Doyle (1983), for example, draws on work in psych-
ology to analyse the cognitive operations involved in different acade-
mic tasks, distinguishing memory tasks, procedural or routine tasks,
comprehension or understanding tasks, and opinion tasks. Similarly,
Mohan s (1986) analysis of tasks in content-based language teaching
employs a cognitive framework.
4 Nunan (1989: 11) also recognizes that it is not always easy to distin-
guish a task from an exercise and argues that making decisions will
always be partly intuitive and judgemental . However, the use of a set
of criterial features such as those proposed in this chapter provides a
way of assessing with some rigour to what extent an activity is a task.
5 The extent to which the BSM elicits communicative language use is a
matter of controversy. Certainly, Larsen-Freeman (1976) found that the
results obtained from its use did not entirely match those obtained
from other more obviously communicative activities.
6 Brumfit and Johnson (1979) published a collection of papers entitled
The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching that began with
extracts from seminal papers by Halliday and Hymes.
7 The strong view of CLT finds a direct correlate in discourse theories of
L2 acquisition. Hatch (1978b) for example claimed that linguistic
competence develops as a product of learners learning how to partici-
pate in conversations in the L2.
8 Winn-Bell Olsen (1977), for example, suggests that her communi-
cation starters can be used to provide an occasional change of pace
(p. xii).
9 Of course, it may be possible to implement a notional/functional
syllabus by means of a communicative methodology by constructing
tasks that focus on specific language uses. The extent to which it is
possible to adopt a communicative methodology in the realization of
an itemized syllabus (structural or notional) is a matter of argument.
Widdowson (1990) argues that it is perfectly feasible. I would suggest
that it is very difficult given the problems of designing effective focused
tasks.
10 Subsequently, Moskowitz referred to humanistic tasks as humanistic
communication activities (Moskowitz 1982).
11 The other relationships between researchers and teachers that Pica
(1997) discusses are coexistence , as evident in SLA research based on
Universal Grammar and work in pedagogical grammar, collaboration ,
as in action research studies, and complementarity , as in research
directed at improving immersion education in Canada.
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE AND LEARNING
© Oxford University Press www.oup.com/elt
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